What are archives?
Before diving into the world of archives, it’s essential to grasp what archives are and what they encompass, including their historical and political significance. It also helps to understand the many definitions of the archive and the types of archival collections which can be found.
The term “archive” can refer to both a physical or virtual place where items are stored, as well as the collection of materials themselves.
According to ArchivesHub, archives are:
“Materials that have been created by individuals, groups or organisations during the course of their life or work and deemed to be worth keeping permanently for the purposes of research and as evidence of the functions and responsibilities of their creator.”
(ArchivesHub, 2025, Using Archives: A beginner’s guide)
The ArchivesHub’s Beginner’s Guide is a fantastic resource for anyone looking to understand key archival terms and concepts. It explains how archives differ from libraries, who manages them, and also offers practical advice on working with both physical and digital archives. The guide highlights that archives:
“reflect our personal, social, economic, and political activities throughout history, up to the present day, and they provide evidence that sheds essential light on the who, why, when, and where of our history.”
(ArchivesHub, 2025, Using Archives: A beginner’s guide)
This underscores the importance of understanding the historical and political implications of archives. Whether you’re a researcher or student looking for historical information, or just curious about the past, archives offer invaluable insights into our collective history.
Types of archive collections
Archive collections can be defined as either material with a common provenance, or ‘fonds’, or as artificial collections.
Provenance refers to the origins and history of something over time. Collections with a common provenance are brought together organically by a person, family or organisation in the course of their activities (also called ‘fonds’), and the materials are often kept in the order in which they were stored by the individual(s) or organisation who collected it. This gives the collection evidential value.
An example of a collection with common provenance is the papers and correspondence of Dorothy Hodgkin, (the English Nobel prize-winning Chemist) which provide a very full record of her career, research and wider professional and public responsibilities. The Bodleian Library received them as a gift directly from Hodgkin and they will have been kept as she ordered them as far as possible, to provide evidence of how she worked, clearly showing the provenance and origin of her work and this collection.
Image: Dorothy Hodgkin in her laboratory, 1964 – https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dorothy-Hodgkin

Artificial collections are where items have been brought together artificially because they bring together similar materials in a way that is useful for research, but do not have a common origin.

One example of an artificial collection could be letters or diaries from different sources that show a particular event or represent a group of people, or a collection of ephemera on a particular subject, such as the British and Irish Women’s Letters and Diaries, which we provide access to on our Library Databases.
Image: Alexander Street Press, 2025 (War Diaries)
A brief history of archives

When you think about archives, it’s easy to picture grand buildings like the National Archives at Kew in London, local record offices, or repositories in universities, libraries, and museums. But did you know that our earliest ancestors had what we now call “living archives”? These were key members of the tribe or community who passed down stories and traditions and in some indigenous communities, this practice continues today.
Image: The National Archives, https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/about/visit-us/
Oral traditions of storytelling, rituals, recitations, songs, and dances evolved into early forms of record-keeping. Ancient petroglyphs and pictograms depicted royal, agricultural, and mercantile activities, often showcasing family records of the elite. This evolved into a tradition of ‘history writing’ in the Greco-Roman world, where literate individuals began recording key contemporary events, legal and church records, and records of trade and colonial empires.
The modern concept of archival work as a science emerged during the Age of Enlightenment, bringing rationality and scientific rigor to archival theory. The first archival education programme was established in 1777 at the University of Naples (Gilliland, 2017, 33-39).
A significant milestone in archival science was the publication of the “Dutch Manual,” or the Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives, in 1898 by Samuel Muller, Johan A. Feith, and Robert Fruin. Ratified in 1910 at the International Congress of Librarians and Archivists in Brussels, this manual is highly regarded for its principles of provenance and original order, which have become foundational concepts in modern archival practice. It provides a systematic methodology for arranging and describing archives, distinguishing archival methods from those used in libraries. However, as Eric Ketelaar points out, this did not lead to uniformity in European archival practices and quotes a Dutch colleague who aptly said, “Europe is united by its differences” (1997, 146).
Image: Open Library, 2019, https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8804544M/Manual_for_the_Arrangement_and_Description_of_Archives_%28Archival_Classics_Series%29

The principles of archival practice “reflected the hierarchies that generated the records as well as the registry systems that supported the work- and information flow in European government bureaucracies” (Gilliland, 2017, 38). Given that most archives were founded by the elite or those in power, and literate individuals (another privilege of the upper classes), it is clear how political ramifications affect the creation and management of archives.
The political power of archives
Archives are not just collections of documents; they are politically charged spaces that reflect power dynamics and control over information. Gale and Featherstone highlight this by describing archives as a “site of power relations, a signifier of the historical and cultural division and ownership of information” (2011, 17). They reference Jacques Derrida’s critique of ‘archive fever,’ which points out that the term “archive” originates from the place where official documents are stored by those in power. Derrida cautions that “some scholars have assumed too quickly that the archive holds the truth” (2011, 18-19).
Gilliland further explores this idea, noting that some scholars view archives as “enabling, collusive, or surveilling.” She emphasizes that there is a growing body of research examining the role of archivists and recordkeepers in colonial, military, and other oppressive bureaucracies, both historically and in contemporary times (2017, 41-42).

This discussion brings to mind George Orwell’s novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, where he famously wrote, “Who controls the past controls the future. Who controls the present controls the past” (1949, 34). In Orwell’s dystopian world, the government manipulates public perception by altering and destroying important documents, even fabricating events that never occurred.
Understanding the political implications of archives is crucial for anyone working in or with these repositories of history. They are not just neutral spaces but are deeply intertwined with power and control.
Image: Author’s own using Wasserstrom, 2019.
The importance of critical engagement with archives
Archives often serve as community memory initiatives, preserving the collective history of a group. However, it is essential to remain curious and critical when exploring archives. Always question who compiled the archives and for what purpose. Consider who is telling the story and whether it is their story to tell.
Dorothy Berry’s The House Archives Built provides a poignant example. She recounts discovering a photo of a baptism in a river near her family’s homestead, catalogued with no known date, individuals, or creator. The only known detail was the professor who made collecting these materials their life’s work. The narrative shifts from the families and communities represented to the professor’s research journey.
Berry emphasizes that this is not an isolated incident. It is a common story of how materials become the property of colleges and universities. She highlights the issue with a photo of a baptism captioned “imagine all your family’s photos living under the heading ‘Katharine G Lederer Ozarks African American History Collection’ with no mention of your family as contributors.” This phenomenon is particularly problematic within Black history, where stories often go untold or are told without acknowledging the people’s names and dates.

Image: Berry, 2021
This example underscores the importance of critically engaging with archives to ensure that the true stories and contributions of communities are recognised and preserved.
Cover image: National Archives Events – MI5: Official Secrets – Online Curator Tour https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/about/visit-us/whats-on/online-events/
References
Alexander Street Press (2025) British and Irish Women’s Letters and Diaries. Available from https://search.alexanderstreet.com/bwl2 [accessed 13 March 2025].
ArchivesHub (2025) Using archives: a beginner’s guide. London: Jisc. Available from https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/guides/usingarchives/ [accessed 6 March 2025].
Berry, D. (2021) The house archives built [blog]. Available from https://www.uproot.space/features/the-house-archives-built [accessed 6 March 2025].
Gale, M.B. and Featherstone, A. (2011) The imperative of the archive: creative archive research. In: Kershaw, B. and Nicholshon, H. (eds.) Research methods in theatre and performance. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 17-40. Available from https://search-ebscohost-com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=e000xww&AN=370799&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=s4895734 [accessed 6 March 2025].
Gilliland, A. (2017) Archival and recordkeeping traditions in the multiverse and their importance for researching situations and situating research. In: Gilliland, A.J., McKemmish, S. and Lau, A.J. (eds.) Research in the archival multiverse. Victoria, Australia: Monash University Press, 31-73. Available from http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/31429 [accessed 6 March 2025].
Ketelaar, E. (1997) The difference best postponed? Cultures and comparative archival science. Archivaria, 44, 142-149.
Muller, S., Feith, J.A., and Fruin, R. (2003) Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists. Available from https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8804544M/Manual_for_the_Arrangement_and_Description_of_Archives_(Archival_Classics_Series) [accessed 13 March 20215].
Orwell, G. (1949) Nineteen Eighty-Four. London: Secker and Warburg.
Wasserstrom, J. (2019) The enduring relevance of George Orwell’s 1984. New Statesman, 14 August. Available from https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/2019/08/the-enduring-relevance-of-george-orwells-1984 [accessed 13 March 2025].